India and Pakistan have significantly upgraded their military capabilities since the nuclear-armed neighbours clashed in 2019, posing increased risks of escalation even in a limited conflict, former military officers and experts say. Pakistan says India plans a military incursion after New Delhi blamed Islamabad for a deadly attack on domestic tourists in Indian Kashmir last month. India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi has vowed to punish the backers of the attack “beyond their imagination”. Pakistan has denied involvement in the attack but has warned it will hit back if it is targeted. In 2019, India carried out air strikes inside Pakistan after the bombing of an Indian military convoy in Kashmir and said it destroyed “terrorist camps”. Pakistani jets conducted a retaliatory air strike and shot down an Indian aircraft during actions spread over two days. The neighbours have fought three wars – in 1948, 1965 and 1971 – and clashed countless times since gaining independence, mostly over the Kashmir region which both claim. Both acquired nuclear weapons in the 1990s and Kashmir is considered one of the most dangerous flashpoints in the world.

Full report : With militaries upgraded, risks multiply in any potential India-Pakistan conflict.